Booker T. Washington, Up From Slavery and 1895 Slave Exposition

Booker T. Washington renowned educator, author and African-American leader released his autobiographical classic Up From Slavery in 1902. While undoubtedly a historic figure in American History Washington was also controversial, one criticized aspect of him was his stance on labor and black-white relations. In chapter 10 of Up From Slavery titled “A Harder Task Than Making Bricks Without Straw” Washington delves deeper into his thoughts on labor. Washington believed that it was essential for blacks to learn a trade rather than to indulge in literary academics. The belief of teaching students labor is written in the beginning of the chapter when Booker T. writes

“My plan was to have them, while performing this service, taught the latest and best methods of labor, so that the school would not only get the benefit of their efforts, but the students themselves would be taught to see not only utility in labor, but beauty and dignity, would be taught, in fact, how to lift labor up from mere drudgery and toil, and would learn to love work for its own sake. My plan was not to teach them to work in the old way but to show them how to make the forces of nature—air, water, steam, electricity, horse-power --- assist them in labor” – Booker T. Washington

Washington had students construct the Institutes many buildings and while many opposed this idea of having inexperienced students work construction the plan never changed. Washington felt the experience of building was essential for the student.  Washington believed that an emphasis on labor would better prepare black people to contribute to their respective communities immediately and more effectively than book knowledge, Washington wrote that

“The actual sight of a first class house that a Negro has built is ten times more potent than pages of discussion about a house that he ought to build, or perhaps could build.

There was much controversy however on Washington’s firm stance on the importance of labor to the advancement of black people. Many parents who sent their children to Tuskegee Institute were against the idea of their child predominantly being taught various trades of labor. Most likely this belief stemmed from slavery being abolished only abolished 37 years before, with the overall majority of slaves not being permitted and only knowing labor it is understandable why they would be opposed to idea of sending their student to school to do more labor. Washington writes on this matter and subtly criticizes the parents decision

“Most of the new student brought a written or a verbal request from their parents to the effect that they wanted their children taught nothing but books. The more books, the larger they were, and the longer the titles printed upon them, the better pleased the students and their parents seemed to be”

Washington, T. Booker. (1902). A Harder Task Thank Making Bricks Without Straw” Lyman Abbott (Ed.), Up From Slavery (pp. 108-112)

On September 18^th, 1895 Booker T. Washington delivered his historical Atlanta Exposition speech. The speech is considered one of his most acclaimed achievements. Booker T. Washington is generally celebrated for being the keynote speaker and delivering an historic speech, there some controversy. Most famously W.E.B DuBois but through out history there has been much discussion concerning Washington’s message. DuBois like other critics felt that Washington compromised to much especially considering that slavery had just ended 30 years before that. One quote that may have given critics this belief is

“As we have proved our loyalty to you in the past, in nursing your children, watching by the sick-bed of your mothers and fathers, and often following them with tear-dimmed eyes to their graves, so in the future, in our humble way, we shall stand by you with a devotion that no foreigner can approach, ready to lay down our lives,”

This one quote good be used as the basis of the criticism, it describes slavery in a very peaceful and friendly way. Also the part about devotion most likely was also a trigger, to suggest black people should have devotion towards white people so soon after slavery and with segregation and civil rights still major social issues it would be seen as insensitive to black people.. Booker T. also spoke of how if blacks did not collaborate with whites they were aiding in the destruction of America. Booker T. says

“Nearly sixteen millions of hands will aid you in pulling the load upward, or they will pull against you the load downward.”

These two points would be easy pointers for critics to use against Washington’s speech

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President Lyndon B. Johnson Commencement Address at Howard U

BY QUALAN FALOYE

Allan Ginsberg, "Howl" (1955)

Poet Allen Ginsberg reads his poem "Howl"
outside the U.S. Court of Appeals in Washington, 1994

Allan Ginsberg was an American Poet and one of the leaders of the Beat Generation of the 1950’s.  He was opposed to militarism, sexual oppression and materialism.  In the poem Howl he appreciates his “hipsters” and takes a stand against capitalism and conformity, which he saw were forces of destruction for this country.

The Poem is comprised of three parts.  The Part found in the book Voices of Freedom is just the second part. Part two of Howl is based on the the characterization of Moloch as industrialism.  While Ginsberg wrote Howl, he was getting inspiration from using a drug called Peyote. The drug induced hallucinations.  These hallucinations made him identify with Moloch.  Moloch was an idol in the Bible to whom the Canaanites sacrificed their children.

A Short Analysis

What sphinx of cement and aluminum bashed open their skulls and ate up their brains and imagination? (The voice in the poem is blaming a creature that is mythical: A Sphinx, which has the head of a human and the body of a lion. The industrial reference is that its made of Cement and Aluminum.)

Moloch the incomprehensible prison! Moloch the crossbone soulless jailhouse and Congress of sorrows! Moloch whose buildings are judgment! Moloch the vast stone of war! Moloch the stunned governments! (Moloch is a representation of the government, which Ginsberg was anti-social authority.  Moloch is responsible for everything evil, war and sadness.)

Moloch whose mind is pure machinery! Moloch whose blood is running money! Moloch whose fingers are ten armies! Moloch whose breast is a cannibal dynamo! Moloch whose ear is a smoking tomb! (Moloch is a human made entity, but is truly inhumane. It shows no emotion, no sympathy or mercy.)

They Broke their backs lifting Moloch to Heaven! Pavements, trees, radios, tons! lifting the city to Heaven which exists and is everywhere about us! (They were looking in the wrong place for the divine. They thought it could be found in "stuff" (or material objects), when in fact it exists in people.)

Visions! omens! hallucinations! miracles! ecstasies! gone down the American river! (Ginsberg was a believed that American capitalism and modern-life had destroyed the ability for people to have visions of hope or reality. Omens, hallucinations, miracles, ecstasies were not part of Moloch. They are good things. But they have been destroyed by Moloch. They have "gone down the American river," which means they were treated like trash, or anything that has no importance.)

"Women Are Hungry"

 

Let others sing of the hungry pain of Life,

Let others sing of the hungry pain of love,

I will sing of the hungry pain of hunger.

            Meridel Le Seur provides a voice to the voiceless in her 1934 works entitled “Women are Hungry.” Le Sueur became the chronicler of women’s lives, often overlooked in accounts of the Great Depression, writing of their experiences in relief agencies and on the breadlines. “Women are Hungry” describes the harsh realities of poverty, starvation, and sexual abuse—of the lives of working-class women during the Depression and their survival by means of supportive friendships and a shared, communal life. In the stories she published in the thirties in such literary magazines as Scribner’s and Partisan Review, Le Sueur wrote treatments of both working- and middle-class women—their experiences of adolescence, marriage, sexuality, pregnancy, childbirth, motherhood, and widowhood.

            “The men are gone away from the family; the family is disintegrating; the women are trying to hold it together, because women have most to do with the vivid life of procreation, food, and shelter. Deprived of their participation in that, they are beggars.”

            In this literary piece Le Seur gives insight into the lives of women, from different walks of life. With each women having a story to tell, we are introduced to Anna, Anna’s mother, Mrs. Rose, Bernice, Mabel, Nancy, Fran, and Ethel. We become one with these characters as we follow their lives and hear their cries, as they struggle to survive in the face of trying times. For the sake of this presentation, I decided to focus in on two out of four stories. The first is entitled Old and Young Mothers, while the second is Moon Bums.

"Poverty is more personal to [women] than to men. The women looking for jobs of bumming on the road, or that you see waiting for a hand-out from the charities are already mental cases as well as physical ones. A man can always get drunk, or talk to other men, no matter how broken he is in body and spirit; but a women ten to one, will starve alonein a hall bed-room until she id thrown out, and then she will sleep alone in some alley until she is picked up.”

“Old and Young Mothers”

Anna is a cook and supports four people, her mother, sister, and two sons, on $45 a month. Her husband left three years ago to find a job in another city.

Mrs. Rose is an elderly woman who has raised six children whose whereabouts she has not known for four years, since they were out of a job. She tries to support herself by getting jobs as a housekeeper but has a hard time. Either she doesn’t get paid at all or the man tries to sleep with her.

Anna’s mother is a widow who was left to support her children by herself, scrubbing office buildings every night until five-thirty. She sent them all through high school, because in America education would lift them out of the physical labor of her class.

“I’ve worked all my life,…with these arms and hands and sent seven children through high school and now I can’t get enough to eat”

Moon Bums

Moon Bums is the vignette of two teenage girls who “had been traveling and mooching around the country for a year and a half” (Le Sueur 325). Fran and Ethel were “old hands”—“Workers kids [who] have graduated from poverty, sweat shops, machines, diets of pigs feet, stale hamburger and old bread” (Le Sueur 325). Before they set out to be on their own, Fran worked in a shirt factory since she was twelve at $ 1.97 for a five hour week, while Ethel went to eight grades in school and then worked as a learner in Connecticut …work[ing] for a dime a week…”(Le Sueur 325). This is the story of the cries of the lost children of the worker who lives hand to mouth.

“To be hungry is different than to count the hungry”.

Franklin D. Roosevelt on the Four Freedoms (1941)

Franklin D. Roosevelt on the Four Freedoms (1941)

The spring of 1939, marked the beginning of World War II in Europe. Most Americans were against the notion of joining the war or even aiding the war. Their country was still suffering from the severe economic depression that had affected them during most of the 1930’s. The American people did not want to deal with other countries problems unless they could solve their own.

Franklin D. Roosevelt was president during this time. He had managed to get many programs of the New Deal passed to help aid the American people but still had not managed to get the country out of the Depression. Joining World War II seemed to be his solution to ending the Great Depression.

If the country was to join the war that meant that the American people would be need to go back to work. Factories would need people to make military equipment and supplies. Large amounts of revenue would be brought to the United States by supplying other European countries that were unable to make their own supplies. The economy and the people of the United States needed this war if they wanted to get back to normalcy.

"I find it unhappily necessary to report that the future and the safety of our country and of our democracy are overwhelmingly involved in events far beyond our borders"

How was FDR going to sell his views about World War II to the American people?

FDR gave his annual address to Congress on January 6, 1941. In his speech he mentions the four essential freedoms that were universal to human kind. These freedoms he spoke about would force the American public to reevaluate the very concept of freedom in a democratic society but they would also become FDR favorite statement for Allied Aims.

"In the future days, which we seek to make sure, we look forward to

a world founded upon four essential human freedoms.

The first is freedom of Speech and expression, everywhere

in the world.

The second is freedom of every person to worship God in his

own way, everywhere in the world.

The third is freedom from want which, translated into world

terms,means economic understandings which will secure to every

nation a healthy peacetime life for its inhabitants, everywhere in the

world.

The fourth freedom is from fear, which translated into world terms, means a world-wide

reduction of armaments to such point and in such a thorough fashion that no nation will be in

a position to commit an act of physical aggression against any neighbor, anywhere in

the world. "

FDR believed that the world order that the American people and the rest of the world want could only be achieved through the cooperation of free countries, which would working together in a friendly, civilized society. According to him, the four freedoms were inevitable to a prosperous democracy

"Conditions at the Slaughterhouse"

       Upton Sinclair's The Jungle in 1906 was a book that shocked the public by exposing  the secrets and conditions of the meatpacking houses in Chicago. It worried the public who thought that the wastes of the  packinghouse were mixed in with their food. Conditions of the meatpacking houses were exposed when people started visiting the packinghouse to get a feel of what was going on. One of the guides who was assisting the visitors stated "they don't waste anything here. They use everything about the hog except the squeal." (Slaughterhouse Conditions) One thing that stood out to me were the swift workers. Once a task was completed, it was sent to the next person without wasting any time, because they knew that time was money. They had a specialized labor with each person having a specific task that they had to complete.

            

        " One scraped the outside of the leg; another scraped the inside of the leg; one cut the throat; another severed the head; then another made a slit down the body; a third cut the breastbone; the fourth loosened the entrails; a fifth pulled them out and slid them through a hole. "
(Slaughterhouse Conditions)

       The carcasses had to pass a government inspector who checked for tuberculosis by feeling the glands in the neck. If you happen to be approachable, the inspector would explain the substances found in pork that had tuberculosis to you. While this went on, a few dozen carcasses would pass the inspector not inspected. This shocked me to know how oblivious some inspectors could be to not notice the great amounts of meat that were being put away without being inspected. People tend to very gullible when they thought that their meat was disease free just because they saw government inspectors. 

     " The people of Chicago saw the government inspectors in Packingtown, and they all took that to mean that they were protected from diseased meat; they did not understand that these hundred and sixty-three inspectors had been appointed at the request of the packers, and that they were paid by the United States government to certify that all the diseased meat was kept in the state. " (Slaughterhouse Conditions)

       I couldn't understand how cruel and heartless inspectors and the government could be to turn their backs on the public by sending them food that could possibly me infected with a disease. They were putting society in great danger by not using proper sanitation methods as well as trying get rid of any existing form of inspection. Packers wanted to get rid of any form of inspection, because they thought that it was an "interference". Meat would fall onto the dirty floor filled with germs. It was stored in places where water from leaks would drip over it. A man who had the job of shoveling would not pick out a rat even if he saw one. Men used the water that was supposed to be for the sausage to wash their hands before eating. The conditions that workers had to go through were terrible. Men who had to push trucks had sore fingers. Those who used knives had countless amounts of cuts all over their hands. Pluckers had to remove sheep pelts by hand, which destroyed their fingers. Some workers even fell into vats which were used to boil meat into soap and lard.

       Workers had dreamed of freedom and an opportunity to learn, and for their children to grow up strong. These conditions didn't stop them from continuing their work because they needed a wage for grocery bills and rent. After a hard day at work, the workers would often go out and drink, which was the only way to cope with their pain and anxiety until they returned to another day of terror at work. 

       

"At a Slaughterhouse, Some Things Never Die"

The New York Times featured an article called, “At a Slaughterhouse, Some Things Never Die- Who Kills, Who Cuts, Who Bosses Can Depend on Race” by Charlie LeDuff. This article is about Smithfield Packing Company, a slaughter house in North Carolina. A reporter went undercover and started working for the company to really see what goes on inside. The reporter wasn’t there to look into health codes or unfair animal treatment; he was there to look at the racial conflicts. The Smithfield plant is made up of mostly Mexicans and Blacks, several Indians and few whites as well as convicts on work release.

“The few whites on the payroll tend to be mechanics or supervisors. As for the Indians, a handful are supervisors; others tend to get clean menial jobs like warehouse work. With few exceptions, that leaves the blacks and Mexicans with the dirty jobs at the factory, one of the only places within a 50-mile radius in this muddy corner of North Carolina where a person might make more than $8 an hour.”



Inside the plant it’s completely broken up by race. Upper management causes some of the problems. They give the “dirty jobs” to the Mexicans and Blacks. They work together on the lines cutting the meat but almost never speak to each other. They tend to stay separated by race, and the noise from the machines are too loud to have conversation anyway. In the cafeteria the races also separate themselves. Each race believes they are better than the other and equally dislike each other. It’s one of the few things they actually agree on, hating each other. Management considers convicts the lowest on the scale, no matter of their race.

The work is hard and tiring, physically and mentally. The article reports that the turnover rate is 100%. Every year they have to hire 5,000 new workers. Due to their location and lack of jobs elsewhere, every year they manage to hire all the new people they need. People in Mexico looking for work have heard about this place and sneak in to work here. Not because it’s a good job, but it pays more than most other jobs that they have available to them.

                They work in hazardous conditions, long hours and are paid unfairly. The workers feel like they need a union to help but they are too scared that any mention of a union will lead to termination. These slaughterhouses used to be located up north where they had union workers. To lower costs the plants moved south for cheaper labor.

What really amazes me about this article is that it was written in 2000. If you didn’t actually know when it was written you would think it was from 50-70 years ago. The management at the plant starts the racial conflict between the people. By assigning certain jobs to certain races and mistreating them it starts a domino effect. The workers are angry and upset with their jobs and bosses, but they can’t say anything in fear of losing their jobs. This makes them even angrier and leads to them taking out their frustrations on each other. They are constantly putting blame on one another for any issues they have with their jobs. It’s so unfortunate that in 2000 this kind of intense racial clashing was still going on.

"The White Mans Burden" (1899)

"Before and After"
Photo Credit: State Historical Society, Wisconsin

Over one hundred years ago, British poet Rudyard Kipling composed a piece of poetry that has resonated for over a century.  The poem, “The White Man's Burden” was a poem about the imperial responsibilities the United States would now have to assume over the Philippines after the Philippine-American war. It was a battle between the United States and Filipino revolutionaries. The war started due to the struggle of the First Philippine Republics inability to gain independence following annexation by the United States. 

Quote Taken from Rudyard Kiplings "The White Mans Burden" 

"Take up the White Man's burden--

Send forth the best ye breed--

Go, bind your sons to exile

To serve your captives' need;

                                                                          To wait, in heavy harness,

                                                                          On fluttered folk and wild--

                                                                            Your new-caught sullen peoples,

                                                                           Half devil and half child."

(One of the justifications made by Europeans for colonizing was they had an obligation to the people of the lands they had taken over. It wasn't (mainly) about the financial gain of conquering, but more of a gesture of kindness to the people.)

The poem expressed how the United States will take it upon them to cleanse the world of uncivilized life. The United States would assume the burden of teaching the other under civilized nations “the right way”.


According to "Give Me Liberty!" "American proponents of empire agreed that the domination of non-white peoples by whites formed part of the progress of civilization." (Foner, p714).

The metaphor “The White Man’s Burden” could translate to the white people will have the obligation to rule over and “teach” the poorer nations how to act the right way until these countries could assume their place among the stronger countries.  Then when they could thrive financially and culturally, they would be ready to be on their own. Though, not really since everything they are, is due to the United States stepping in and taking over.  Others believe the White Man’s burden should be interpreted in a more charitable light.  The wealthy countries (such as the United States and England) have a moral obligation to help the poor establish themselves whether the poor want the help or not.  This is a huge referendum to cultural imperialism.  The White Man’s Burden was not solely directed at the United States for the Philippines, but it’s directed at the wealthy and established European Countries to share their resources, be it financially or medically.

Imperialism could be for the best, if carried out justly.  If the culture and customs of the people being supported would be preserved and protected, it could be successful and good for everyone; yet that is highly unlikely of ever happening.  The White Man’s Burden has certainly been viewed as racist and morally inappropriate by many. Though some commentators consider Kipling’s works to be satirical writing, and suggest that "The White Man's Burden" is in fact meant to satirically undermine imperialism.

Uncle Sam as the proverbial
 father of needy and uncontrollable children:
 Hawaii, Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines.
Photo Credit: The Detroit Journal

"Mass production makes a Better World"

 I do believe mass production can effect the world in which we live.Mass production as we all know is producing large amount of goods and services and a low cost per unit.Many great sociologists such as Karl Marx,Max Webber tested this theory of Mass production.In contemporary society Mass Production can be useful to the economy to an extent.If you produce a large amount of goods,then this will ultimately create jobs for unemployed individuals.The great Henry Ford also did this with his company-Ford Motors.Even though Mass production is said to be capital and energy intensive,due to the fact that mainly machines are being used,you still need manual labor to operate these machines and fix these machines.Edward Filene another great ideologist in American History,shared the same sentiments.He was convinced that mass production made a better world,in addition he also believed that it would create jobs despite the over usage of machines as opposed to manual labor.Mass Production is practiced not only in America,but in many industrialized countries over the world.The world is certainly not perfect as how Edward Filene would've imagined,and I'm sure he never wanted a perfect world due to Mass Production,but because of his ideas and others the world is certainly more abrupt on production.